Commensalism Definition, Examples, and Relationships

Commensalism Definition, Examples, and Relationships Commensalism is a sort of connection between two living life forms in which one creature profits by the other without hurting it. A commensal animal varieties profits by another species by getting velocity, sanctuary, food, or backing from the host species, which (generally) neither advantages nor is hurt. Commensalism ranges from brief collaborations between species to deep rooted beneficial interaction. Commensalism Definition The term was begat in 1876 by Belgian scientist and zoologist Pierre-Joseph van Beneden, alongside the term mutualism. Beneden at first applied the word to depict the action of cadaver eating creatures that followed predators to eat their waste food. The word commensalism originates from the Latin word commensalis, which means sharing a table. Commensalism is frequently examined in the fields of nature and science, despite the fact that the term stretches out to different sciences. Terms Related to Commensalism Commensalism is regularly mistaken for related words: Mutualism - Mutualism is aâ relationship in which two creatures profit by one another. Amensalism - A relationship wherein one life form is hurt while the other isn't influenced. Parasitism - A relationship where one creature benefits and the other is hurt. Theres regularly banter about whether a specific relationship is a case of commensalism or another sort of communication. For instance, a few researchers think about the connection among individuals and gut microscopic organisms to be a case of commensalism, while others trust it is mutualistic in light of the fact that people may increase a profit by the relationship. Instances of Commensalism Remora fish have a plate on their heads that makes them ready to join to bigger creatures, for example, sharks, mantas, and whales. At the point when the bigger creature takes care of, the remora disconnects itself to eat the extra food.Nurse plants are bigger plants that offer security to seedlings from the climate and herbivores, allowing them a chance to grow.Tree frogs use plants as protection.Golden jackals, when they have been ousted from a pack, will trail a tiger to benefit from the remaining parts of its kills.Goby fish live on other ocean creatures, changing shading to mix in with the host, hence picking up assurance from predators.Cattle egrets gobble the bugs worked up by steers when they are munching. The dairy cattle are unaffected, while the fowls gain food.The burdock plant produces barbed seeds that stick to the hide of creatures or attire of people. The plants depend on this technique for seed dispersal for proliferation, while the creatures are unaffected. Kinds of Commensalism (With Examples) Inquilinism - In inquilinism, one living being utilizes another for perpetual lodging. A model is a winged creature that lives in a tree gap. Here and there epiphytic plants developing on trees are viewed as iniquilism, while others should seriously mull over this to be a parasitic relationship on the grounds that the epiphyte may debilitate the tree or take supplements that would somehow or another go to the host. Metabiosis - Metabiosis is a commensalistic relationship in which one living being structures a living space for another. A model is a recluse crab, which utilizes a shell from a dead gastropod for insurance. Another model would be parasites living on a dead creature. Phoresy - In phoresy, one creature connects to another for transport. This sort of commensalism is frequently found in arthropods, for example, bugs living on creepy crawlies. Different models incorporate anemone connection to recluse crab shells, pseudoscorpions living on warm blooded creatures, and millipedes going on flying creatures. Phoresy might be either commit or facultative. Microbiota - Microbiota are commensal creatures that structure networks inside a host living being. A model is the bacterial verdure found on human skin. Researchers differ on whether microbiota is really a sort of commensalism. On account of skin verdure, for instance, there is proof the microscopic organisms present some assurance on the host (which would be mutualism). Tamed Animals and Commensalism Household pooches, felines, and different creatures seem to have begun with commensal associations with people. On account of the pooch, DNA proof demonstrates hounds related themselves with individuals before people changed from chasing social event to agribusiness. Its accepted the predecessors of canines followed trackers to eat survives from corpses. After some time, the relationship became mutualistic, where people additionally profited by the relationship, picking up protection from different predators and help following and killing prey. As the relationship changed, so did the qualities of mutts. Reference: Larson G (2012). Reconsidering hound taming by coordinating hereditary qualities, paleohistory, and biogeography. Procedures of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109: 8878â€83.

Wilhelm II: Policy Making in 1914 Berlin

Wilhelm II: Policy Making in 1914 Berlin Q. Who was accountable for approach in Berlin in 1914 and for what reason did they go about as theyâ did? ‘A lively progress to a settler approach will give Germany the spaceâ it needs . . . A fruitless war can close to set Germany back,â although for quite a while; England it can annihilate. As victor England will beâ rid of an ungainly contender; Germany will become what England isâ now, the world power.’ (Das Neue Deutschland) ‘The unending accentuation on harmony at each open door †reasonable andâ unsuitable †has, over the most recent 43 years of harmony, created an altogetherâ eunuch-like demeanor among the legislators and ambassadors of Europe’ (Wilhelm II) Antiquarians of the Great War partition into two principle camps while discussing who were the central arrangement creators and men responsible for Germany at the flare-up of war in the late spring of 1914. The principal school, drove antiquarians, for example, Fritz Fischer, contends that Germany’s Kaiser, Wilhelm II, Germany’s Imperial Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg, and Germany’s Chief of the General Staff, Helmuth Moltke, intrigued to purposely and deliberately start full-scale and non-limited war. This school expresses that Germany’s radical aspirations †as exemplified in the citations above †developing as they outed of national pride and richness of her unification in 1871, had given Germany a voracious craving to duplicate and outperform the political authority delighted in then by England. The subsequent school, drove by for the most part outdated and wistful German national students of history like Kessler, rejects the proposal of a Ã¢â‚¬Ë œpremeditated European war’ and sets a situation where, under outrageous global tension, Germany’s government officials needed to, if all else fails, surrender position to the military with the goal that they could protect Germany from unfriendly neighbors. This article will contend that the extraordinary majority of past and authentic proof  ­Ã¢â‚¬ Wilhelm’s and others individual journals, military records, parliamentary papers, etc †uncover that the primary school has it right when they state that arrangement was made in conspiracy between Wilhelm II, Bethmann and Moltke’s armed force. These arrangement creators went about as they did in light of the fact that they expected that their chance for colonialist development was going to close, and with it Germany’s since quite a while ago looked for any expectations of force to be reckoned with. The Imperial Chancellor and Moltke controlled the Reichstag and Kaiser Wilhelm II in order to incite the intentional certainty of war.. As indicated by Hewitson[1], two conceivably conclusive approach creators †the German open: especially the recently framed industrialized and urbanized classes; and German ideological groups †were sidelined from significant arrangement choices close to the beginning of the war. The unification of Germany under Bismarck in 1871 had, as in Italy, brought up a great soul of patriotism among Germans, and this patriot pride streamed out into aspirations for Germany to have a realm to match those of England and France. In a similar period, German culture experienced a gigantic social and political change, with power moving from the old Junker and rural classes to Germany’s colossal new urbanized masses. This move from horticulture to industry implied that the urbanized Germans presently had a possibly definitive voice in national issues and arrangement choices. In 1914 it was not express anyway that Germany’s industrialized residents would have consistently supporte d the kind of war that was pronounced by its pioneers that mid year. Bethmann presumptively asserted, after the war, that ‘. . . the war didn't emerge out of single strategic activities, yet was somewhat an aftereffect of open passion’. In actuality, while the German open knew the general foundation to the global circumstance, they knew almost nothing at about the specific choices and approaches that were being made by their pioneers in the basic weeks in July 1914. Obviously, not knowing about the reality of occasions in Serbia and Austria, the German open couldn't utilize their significant capacity to have any impact upon the approach choices behind those occasions. Hewitson[2] contends that Bethmann, Zimmermann, Jagow, the Kaiser and Moltke purposely kept the German individuals in obscurity since they expected that the individuals may raise restriction to a forceful and non-limited clash. In this manner, Clemens von Delbruck, Secretary of State for the Interior in 1914, could express that ‘. . . we (the Chancellor’s division) have not spoken about international strategy by any stretch of the imagination, the day by day press was totally quiet, and nobody among the guests present speculated the smallest thing about the up and coming threat of war’. Writers and the open they announced for were exposed to an extensive and expand endeavors from the Kaiser and his military to disguise Germany’s genuine goals until such a point, that when became known to the general population, it might want Germany was a casualty and just battling a ‘defensive’ and ‘localized’ war. The Chief of Wilhelm’s Na val Cabinet in this way expressed in July 1914 that ‘The government has overseen splendidly to make us (Germany) resemble the attacked’[3][4]. A comparable cover was tossed over the eyes of Germany’s legislators and ideological groups. Following Archduke Ferdinand’s death in Sarajevo, a large portion of Germany’s government officials were away from Berlin on their yearly occasions; this straightforward actuality implied that their impact over approach, and any resistance they may have typically raised to the hostility of Wilhelm and Moltke, was to a great extent killed by their nonattendance. When lawmakers came back to Berlin, the choice to do battle had been made and they had no review capacity to switch this arrangement. Similarly, German lawmakers were blamable for a significant underestimation of the earnestness of occasions after the Sarajevo shelling. Legislators and liberal papers, for example, the Vossiche Zeitung and the Frankfurter Zeitung said in the quick outcome of the death that the ‘Serbian government had no part in the crime’; even conservative papers, for example, the Berl iner Neueste Nachrichten neither foreseen nor called for reprisal against Serbia for the death. This disposition can be applauded for trying to assuage Germany and to keep away from war; it can in like manner be condemned for a specific naivety, disparaging the genuine aims of the German military. These two gatherings then †the German open and the German legislators †can be said to have had an extremely constrained impact upon the arrangement choices taken in July 1914. In the event that not these, who at that point were the central arrangement creators in control in 1914? Kaiser Wilhelm II apparently, and maybe in actuality, was a focal figure in such choices. Wilhelm was the incomparable figure in German life: he was Commander-in-Chief of the German armed force, and was engaged by Articles 11 and 18 of the German constitution to announce war. The partners perceived Wilhelm’s centrality in controlling strategy in 1914 when at the Treaty of Versailles they named him as a ‘war criminal’ with direct obligation regarding Germany’s intentional endeavor to start the war. This image of Wilhelm’s focal inclusion, and his longing for war, is upheld by narrative proof from the many months promptly going before the war. Composing of Friedrich von Pourtales, German diplomat to Russia, Wilhelm said that ‘†¦ he would improve to leave unwritten’ his considerations about Russia’s absence of want for war. A fterward, additionally of Pourtales, that ‘He makes the individuals who are oblivious of Russia and powerless, suspect characters among his perusers, absolutely confused’[5]. Various other ambassadorial reports and journals uncover that, inside the German and global discretionary network, Wilhelm’s suppositions were accepted to straightforwardly shape and decide the bearing of German remote policy[6]. Given the tone and substance of the citations refered to above, plainly, if Wilhelm did undoubtedly have as much force as his negotiators accepted, that he utilized this to induce war purposely and on an excellent scale rather ‘in defence’ or in a ‘localized context’. Regardless, various students of history, Kennedy and Herwig for example, contend that strategic evaluations of Wilhelm’s powers were blinkered, and that in truth he had significantly little impact over approach in 1914. Kennedy[7] portrays how Wilhelm’s force and impact over approach, at its summit around 1900, started to disappear because of outrage and ineptitude in the years going before 1914. The awful Daily Telegraph international strategy choices, just as the Eulenberg court outrage, had prompted plunge of his position among both the German open and its decision elites; in Kennedy’s state he did not have a ‘personal regime’ that would have given progressively conclusive impact over approach. Wilhelm II bewildered his loss of power by hauling behind him a company of inept ambassadorial and strategic staff, for example, Pourtales, Wilhelm von Schoen and Karl Max von Lichnowsky. The Imperial Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg, had regularly contradicted Wilhelm’s choices in the years prior to the war, and right now of the Serbian emergency reports show that Bethmann’s power unmistakably surpassed that controlled by Wilhelm. For example, on July fifth 1914, Alexander von Hykos, spoke to Germany for help in the Serbian emergency; Wilhelm II without a moment's delay guaranteed Ladislaus Szogyeny-Marich, Austria’s represetative to Berlin German’s absolute help, yet molded this guarantee with the accompanying words ‘. . . that he (Wilhelm) should initially hear what the Imperial Chancellor needed to

War and Peace and Anna Karenina Comparison Essay Example For Students

War and Peace and Anna Karenina Comparison Essay The two books, War and Peace and Anna Karenina are both progressive stories enveloping scholarly topics, concealed realities and the unwavering significance of society in a nation where inner strife and flimsiness rules. These social orders are exceptional; the measure of profundity for each character, level of multidimensionality, and the joining of characters cooperated to produce a practical Russian culture. In both of these books, notwithstanding, there is one character that is basic to the turn of events and association of the novel. These characters don't generally show up as often as possible all through the parts yet penetrate each cultural segment and are halfway associated with the principle topics encompassing these two bits of writing. In the novel War and Peace, there is one political figure that is integral to the improvement of the entire novel. This character doesn't show up regularly, yet the French Emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, is the subject of discussion for the entire populace. From the opening of the novel; it is promptly evident that this singular man overwhelms all discussions and musings of society. Anna Pavlovna Scherer states first and foremost, in the event that you will permit yourself to approve all the terrible barbarities executed by that Antichrist㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬ yes, that is the thing that I think he isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ I will repudiate you War 5. While Scherers hatred is shared by numerous individuals of different characters, the captivation by war and Bonaparte didn't disseminate. The negating assessments of Napoleon were likewise noticeable at the home of Prince Nicholas Bolkonski. Three characters got into a warmed conversation and Andrew had the boldness to differ with his dad regarding the matter of Bonaparte. This contradiction speaks to the profundity where to Bonaparte has saturated society; he spoke to the strain of war on families and connections. As the novel advanced, Napoleon turned into the image of war and languishing over the entire of Russian culture. This was an extreme change from the first thought of Bonaparte; a divine resembling figure. The force of his old picture was staggeringly convincing. This was apparent on June twelfth, 1812 when while crossing the Niemen River, the French and Polish soldiers were propelled to swim across in order to prove their commitment and enthusiasm. This impact scattered quickly, however, with the results of the Battle of Borodino and the bombed intrusion of Moscow. The misfortune appeared to be inadmissible to the French because of this thought of strength that Bonaparte had set up and subsequently his respectability declined, it is outside our ability to grasp that a huge number of Christian men ought to have slaughtered and tormented each other in light of the fact that Napoleon was a neurotic War 668. Napoleon contributed broadly to the books focal subjects and to the improvement of the fundamental messages in War and Peace. One such topic was soul ruling over influence, the battle for affection over cash and the estimation of life and respectability over the materialistic estimations of life. Napoleons misfortune didn't originate from an absence of provisions but since Bonaparte only hungered for matchless quality while the Russians were battling for more prominent's benefit and along these lines triumphed at long last. Tolstoys other novel, Anna Karenina, shares likenesses with War and Peace. Both of these bits of writing include a character wherein the crucial subjects of the novel are induced by an apparently insignificant character. The character, Stepan Arkadyich Oblonsky, fills in as the impetus for the plot and a few topics of Anna Karenina. Not at all like War and Peace which includes love on an increasingly oversimplified scale; Anna Karenina is a portrayal of the numerous faceted thought of affection which includes vain endeavors at marriage, family, and the unpardonable enthusiasm of infidelity. These ideas of affection are additionally separated by the expansive scope of characters who cooperate to build up the establishment of a balanced society. .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a , .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a .postImageUrl , .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a .focused content zone { min-stature: 80px; position: relative; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a , .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a:hover , .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a:visited , .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a:active { border:0!important; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a { show: square; change: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-progress: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; murkiness: 1; change: obscurity 250ms; webkit-change: mistiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a:active , .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a:hover { darkness: 1; progress: haziness 250ms; webkit-change: haziness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a .focused content region { width: 100%; position: relative; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: striking; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; content enhancement: underline; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; text style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; fringe sweep: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: intense; line-tallness: 26px; moz-fringe range: 3px; content adjust: focus; content embellishment: none; content shadow: none; width: 80px; min-stature: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/basic arrow.png)no-rehash; position: supreme; right: 0; top: 0; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c168 61a4ba59629a .focused content { show: table; stature: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u45f0cee609fd4791c16861a4ba59629a:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: William Faulkner’s As I Lay Dying EssayStepan assumes a fundamental job in this general public by characterizing the dominating subjects of infidelity and the internal identity from the earliest starting point. Infidelity portrays this whole abstract work; initiating with Stepans demonstrations of treachery and proceeding with Annas blasphemous choice to swindle at last consummation in a separation. Thinking back on the novel, it is promptly clear that Stepans rash and coldhearted activities impacted Anna to follow his philandering mentality. Whether or not Stepan was correct or wrong, Annas absence of self-judgment uncovers a f eeble and unfriendly character. Stepan, then again, was a dubious character; his evident convictions that enthusiasm preceded society and responsibility was a decision clashed with his great estimations of genuineness. When Stepans contact with his childrens tutor ejected away from any confining influence, his genuineness was unquestionable, he should not go㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢ ¦nothing could come out of it however deception; that to revise, to fix their relations was unthinkable, on the grounds that it was difficult to make her alluring again and ready to move love 12. The other subject that Stepan entirely includes is the youthfulness of grown-ups; his activities can be promptly contrasted with a youngster taking a treat from the treat jar㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬ he either doesn't comprehend the seriousness of his activities or essentially couldn't care less. The absence of control and obligation in which Stepan handles his life is consumed by Anna in this manner impelling her whimsical choice to cheat, torpid envy, and her self destruction. Stepan was all the more a focal character then Bonaparte yet he satisfied a similar obligation of adding to the advancement of the essential subjects which crossed all through the whole novel. Both War and Peace and Anna Karenina were books that managed issues that despite everything spin out of control today; war and passing, the quest for adoration and fleeing from affection. Tolstoy joined key characters to help develop these thoughts that penetrate society so as to make an ageless, multidimensional novel that despite everything corresponds to the issues of today.

Dividing Decimals Using Estimation Coursework - 825 Words

Dividing Decimals Using Estimation (Coursework Sample) Content: Dividing Decimals Using EstimationGoing by the words of Sadi A (2007), decimals to students are the biggest challenge of all number concepts. It follows that division of decimals using estimation is a very important skill for elementary school students looking to horn their math skills. Notably, the strategy used in division and multiplication of whole numbers still applies for decimals problems. It is upon the teacher to advice the student to have an estimate of the quotient before actually attempting the problem. The topic on division of decimals using estimation comes after the class about developing strategies for fraction computation, developing concepts of decimals and percents, and interpretations of dividing fractions. All these are strategies that require mental input and adding this estimation strategy is very beneficial for math conceptual development of students. In dividing decimals, understanding the concept is very critical for both teacher and student. That is why decimal squares and other concrete materials come in handy in a decimal division lesson. It is very fulfilling to note how easy it is to make a connection between a math problem and day-to-day life. This should form the basis for a concrete understanding of decimal division concepts in students. This essay revisits the topic of dividing decimals using estimation by solving a mathematical task of that nature. By accomplishing this task, the challenges that students encounter solving a division of decimals problem will be identified. Part I: Teachers challenge The following is the solution of the task:Activity 17. 13: Provide a quotient correct to five digits without the decimal point, such as 146Ã ·7=20857. The task is to use only this quotient information and apply estimation strategy to give a precise answer. The solution for each of the figures is given below:146Ã ·0.7=208.571.46Ã ·7=0.2085714.6Ã ·0.7=20.8571460Ã ·70=20.857To get these answers, I used the roun ding technique of estimation that helps get and idea of the answer. It is very unlikely to get a wrong estimation by using this technique. Other techniques applicable in this case include front-end estimation, and compensation. Front-end estimation is the approach where changing all other numbers to zero apart from the first digit. Compensation is characterized by adjustment to make the estimate as close as possible to the true answer.Part II: Student ChallengeDivision of decimals is a very interesting topic as it is largely connected to multiplication. In fact, students are encouraged to think more of multiplication when they are dealing with a division estimate problem. The importance of this strategy comes to focus when you consider how the students estimate the following problems. In most of the questions, the students did not have any problem with division. However, question 4 presented some problem. For example, Student A erroneously added a zero in front of 8 in the number 200857, without knowing this altered the nature of the number completely. This mistake is a clear indication that the students do not have the conceptual understanding of dividing decimals using estimation. One of the misconceptions seen in children is that putting 0s at the front of whole numbers does not matter (Irwin). If this misconception is allowed to continue, the student might think that like in whole numbers, 0.2 is the same as 0.02. The demonstration here is that the students might have problems determining decimal quotients, using estimation. The insight from this is that it might be necessary to introduce a new strategy for the students to complement estimation. Encouragingly, the students demonstrate a great deal of understanding of the method used to divide the decimals. However, this should not be confused for complete mastery of the technique. Research shows that it is possible for students to grasp the method without getting the concepts. This is evident in studen t Cs solution to question 4 where there is confusion while reverting to division of whole numbers. The rounding off method I used for this task is different from the students strategy. Students rely on the method alone without emphasis on concepts and meaning of division of decimals. Conclusion Dividing Decimals Using Estimation Coursework - 825 Words Dividing Decimals Using Estimation (Coursework Sample) Content: Dividing Decimals Using EstimationGoing by the words of Sadi A (2007), decimals to students are the biggest challenge of all number concepts. It follows that division of decimals using estimation is a very important skill for elementary school students looking to horn their math skills. Notably, the strategy used in division and multiplication of whole numbers still applies for decimals problems. It is upon the teacher to advice the student to have an estimate of the quotient before actually attempting the problem. The topic on division of decimals using estimation comes after the class about developing strategies for fraction computation, developing concepts of decimals and percents, and interpretations of dividing fractions. All these are strategies that require mental input and adding this estimation strategy is very beneficial for math conceptual development of students. In dividing decimals, understanding the concept is very critical for both teacher and student. That is why decimal squares and other concrete materials come in handy in a decimal division lesson. It is very fulfilling to note how easy it is to make a connection between a math problem and day-to-day life. This should form the basis for a concrete understanding of decimal division concepts in students. This essay revisits the topic of dividing decimals using estimation by solving a mathematical task of that nature. By accomplishing this task, the challenges that students encounter solving a division of decimals problem will be identified. Part I: Teachers challenge The following is the solution of the task:Activity 17. 13: Provide a quotient correct to five digits without the decimal point, such as 146Ã ·7=20857. The task is to use only this quotient information and apply estimation strategy to give a precise answer. The solution for each of the figures is given below:146Ã ·0.7=208.571.46Ã ·7=0.2085714.6Ã ·0.7=20.8571460Ã ·70=20.857To get these answers, I used the roun ding technique of estimation that helps get and idea of the answer. It is very unlikely to get a wrong estimation by using this technique. Other techniques applicable in this case include front-end estimation, and compensation. Front-end estimation is the approach where changing all other numbers to zero apart from the first digit. Compensation is characterized by adjustment to make the estimate as close as possible to the true answer.Part II: Student ChallengeDivision of decimals is a very interesting topic as it is largely connected to multiplication. In fact, students are encouraged to think more of multiplication when they are dealing with a division estimate problem. The importance of this strategy comes to focus when you consider how the students estimate the following problems. In most of the questions, the students did not have any problem with division. However, question 4 presented some problem. For example, Student A erroneously added a zero in front of 8 in the number 200857, without knowing this altered the nature of the number completely. This mistake is a clear indication that the students do not have the conceptual understanding of dividing decimals using estimation. One of the misconceptions seen in children is that putting 0s at the front of whole numbers does not matter (Irwin). If this misconception is allowed to continue, the student might think that like in whole numbers, 0.2 is the same as 0.02. The demonstration here is that the students might have problems determining decimal quotients, using estimation. The insight from this is that it might be necessary to introduce a new strategy for the students to complement estimation. Encouragingly, the students demonstrate a great deal of understanding of the method used to divide the decimals. However, this should not be confused for complete mastery of the technique. Research shows that it is possible for students to grasp the method without getting the concepts. This is evident in studen t Cs solution to question 4 where there is confusion while reverting to division of whole numbers. The rounding off method I used for this task is different from the students strategy. Students rely on the method alone without emphasis on concepts and meaning of division of decimals. Conclusion

Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Plan For Jane - 1799 Words

Course Paper: Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Plan for Jane Tiffany Gyimah 02-46-333-01 Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Plan for Jane Many like to believe that therapy is simply just a therapist and a client discussing childhood problems. Although that is a small portion of what therapy can be for someone there are so many other aspects to psychotherapy as treatment. Psychotherapy is often suggested for many disorders and has become very effective in improving and healing those disorders without medicated treatment. With therapy, treatment plans are often used to properly convey and focus on the type therapy being used. Treatment plans are important when it comes to the therapy session because it can provide information†¦show more content†¦Cognitive behavioral therapy can be applied to a range of disorders for improvement. CBT can work by changing people’s behavior and attitudes to focus on underlining issues within their thoughts, and beliefs. This type of therapy is based on the meanings we give our negative thoughts (Martin, 2016). Negative thoughts can essentially hinder positive behavior, crea ting a cycle. CBT works to change the way of thinking for a patient to encourage positive behavior. Someone who is suffering from psychological distress often has a negative way of interpreting situations, which becomes a cycle (McLeod, 1970). In terms of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, behavioral and emotional change can be accomplished with change in cognition. There is a focus on what is going on in the patients’ life currently rather than the past (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, 2016); highlighting only the current reasons for certain emotions. According to Gaudiano (2008), the major component of cognitive behavioral therapy is cognitive change then symptom reduction, which is thought to lead to improvements. The therapy is intended to help make patients become aware of the undesired behaviors and create alternate ways of thinking. It is about small changes that eventually lead to a greater impact on feelings and behavior. In regards to using the CBT technique there is structure based on how and which specific technique is used. CBT incorporates different therapeutic techniques in order toShow MoreRelatedSeparation Anxiety And Its Effects On Children1560 Words   |  7 Pagesof the most common anxiety disorders i n children affecting one out of twenty. It is a developmental stage during which the child experiences anxiety when separated from the primary care giver, usually the mother, and is in fact a part of natural cognitive development. When a baby is around 6 months old, they start to understand that they are detached from their mother, meaning the mother can leave at any time. 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Concept Of Identity And Identity - 1529 Words

Concept of Identity The concept of identity is essential to the psychological study of humans and their importance in society. One established definition of identity states it is an outcome of participating in the process of identification (Lawler, S 2008). Identification occurs in two main stages. The primary stage is uniquely personal as it is the fundamental part of one’s personality. It is exhibited in every action undertaken by the person. The secondary stage is malleable and adjusts itself based on the situation. As a result, it is possible a different identity is provided in each event. These stages are both vital to the concept of identity. Family (which is present in the first stage) is important in the early stages of one’s life during development and remains mostly unchanged. While a workplace rather (which is present in the second stage) is a social aspect that one’s identity must adapt to while becoming part of society. As a result, each stage is equally important in th e concept of identity. A popular theorist in this field of study, Erik Erikson developed a unique viewpoint on the concept of Identity. Erikson’s theory states that as a person matures they will be faced with various issues they must overcome, with failure inducing an inability to complete future stages and cause a person to have an corrupt personality and concept of their own identity. The picture below outlines the various stages one must engage in throughout their life. The ‘ideal’ person isShow MoreRelatedConcept of Identity860 Words   |  4 PagesThe concept of identity and it s shifting influences has many forms such as; cultural, social, community, racial, sex and so on. These leave many in society with a â€Å"label† or stereotype to their name if they are out of place, unique, one of a kind or just being themselves and society doesn t condone this. 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Locke and Hume both share their ideas about Personal identity and although they might both drastically differ they are still both puzzling. Locke’s theory on personal identity has to do with what make a person the same person over time, and to Locke remaining the same person doesn’t necessarily mean remaining the same physically. â€Å"For, since consciousness always accompaniesRead MoreSociological Concepts Of Identity And Globalization1083 Words   |  5 Pagesessay will endeavor to critically examine the sociological concepts of identity and globalization, and the manner in which they have swayed the aspect of human relationships in Australian society, over the course of history. My Japanese grandparents’ generation, which will be referred to as ‘Generation X’, will also be considered by analyzing the differences in regards to this issue with my generation, ‘The Millennial’s’. The notion of identity is an enduring subject that sociologists have been analyzingRead MoreIdentity Management, Concepts, And Definitions1734 Words   |  7 Pages(1) The Topic: Identity Management, Concepts, and Definitions What is Identity Management? In sociological terms it is communication strategy which is goal-oriented. It operates on both the conscious and subconscious level; communicators attempt to control the impressions of other people about themselves. This is achieved by governing and effecting various impressions designed to control social interactions. It is the outward facing or presenting self, in which one manipulates their

Banking System and its Impact on the Economic Development

Question: Describe about theBanking System and its Impact on the Economic Development? Answer: Introduction Banking system plays a key role in the economic development of the United States of America. The Bank of New York was formed in the year 1784, and is known to be one of the oldest banks in the country. There are different types of services rendered by the bank. The performance of the bank depends upon the global economy of the country. It has played an indefinable role in the economic development of the nation. The centralised banking system has improved the payment systems, which is an important factor of the economic development. Apart from this, the authorities of the banks also work towards issuing currencies to the nation. The banks also work towards issuing legal tender, which is also called as the Federal Reserve Notes and coins. One of the major reasons for the economic development of the country has been due to effective financial sector that operates in the USA. The reformed system has helped the authorities in drafting and implementing changes that are required for analysi ng the long term financial requirements of the nation. This essay has been prepared on the global economic event about the lawsuits that were lodged against some of the established banks in the USA (Adrian and Shin, 2007). Case study Issue with the banks There is no second opinion about the fact that the banks play a key role in the development of the nation. However in the year 2013, there were many lawsuits that were registered against reputed banks like JPMorgan Chase, and others. In fact the banks had to loss huge amount on compensating against the cases that were filed against the authorities. Most of the lawsuits were filed by the government, and the funds had to be compensated to the federal authorities. Some of the reasons that were stated for charging the compensation amount were - Investments in the sales pre-financial crisis Bad mortgage (Gorton, and Metrick, 2010) Apart from this, there were tremendous increase in the number of small litigation charges that were filed by different parties like the - Small and medium sized business houses Individuals (BIS Woing Papers, 2000) Government Apart from the JPMorgan, there were many other banks that also faced tough time with handling the issues related to litigation in the United States of America. Such factors had a direct impact on the economic development and plan that was drafted by the authorities of the country. This was one of the reasons, the rules and policies governing the banking policies in the country made quite strict. Besides this, the law amount varied from each other and completely depended on the case that was filed against the banks. Some of the banks that had to bear the crunch of lawsuits were- Bank of America Goldman Sachs Morgan Stanley Many of the companies had to face issues with the procedure that was adopted for the sales of securities including mortgage. The banks had manipulated the sales figures in order to increase the sales for the organization. Such lawsuits had created a wrong impression about the financial system that existed within the country. As per some experts, an increase in the lawsuit was direct indication that the financial system and the federal authorities had fair chance to adopt fraudulent methods for manipulating the figures. This had directly affected the economic viability of the country, and impacted the performance (Gordy, 2000). The economic performance of the country depends upon various factors, and they have to be analysed at regular intervals. In 2014, the economic progress of many developing countries including the United States of America was not up to the mark. This was basically associated with the financial market and its stability. The economic had viewed changes in different prices like oil, increase in the interest rates, and many others. In order to regularise the price and the performance of the banks, it was quite important to introduce rules through which the policies and rules could be regularised for this, it was essential to draft the best policies through which the wrong practices could be reduced or controlled. Both the factors were considered to be quite important, and the federal authorities had to take the corrective steps through which the changes could be implemented (Jones, 2000). Financial experts had discussed about the impact of improper banking systems on the savings and payment transactions that were carried out by the individuals. This is one of the reasons, the performance of the multilateral developmental banks were analysed. Through this method, an attempt was made to analyse the current structure that was followed by the management to improve upon the performance of the banks. In order to improve the performance, the managers of the banks were vested with additional responsibilities to check and supervise the business operational activities. It also included supervising the programs that were developed by the banks to benefit the people and other industries. Banks specialising in the market based loans had to follow strict rules through which the changes in terms of policies and other factors could be implemented. This was quite an essential step, and was meant to help in improving the performance of the banks. In this process, the rules to grant con cessional loans to the individuals, industries, or to the countries were analysed. This was done to introduce the best policies through which the changes could be implemented for increasing the performance of the banks. The process that was expected to be followed by the banks, including the repayment procedure was supervised. Through this method, the management had expected to decrease the possibilities of wrong recording of the details or information. It was also necessary to improve the standards that were expected to be followed by the banks. This would help in increasing the level of transparency that was followed by the banks (Mitchell, 2013). Also an attempt was made to minimise the number of fraudulent actives that incurred between the clients and the banks. This was one of the most important factors that were expected to help in improving the performance of the banks. Due to inefficient performance of the banks, many individuals were also impacted. It was noticed that the mortgage loan interest rates had tremendously increased. This was indeed a matter to be concerned about. The changes that were proposed to be introduced by the government include analysing the reasons or factors that caused an increase in the rates of interest. An increase in the rate of interest was a deep concern as this had directly impacted the savings of the people. Such a factor had to be controlled as the rise in the price had increased the cost of living for the people. In order to improve the condition, the government had to take up the necessary steps through which the changes in the market could be introduced. Apart from introducing the step s, it was also necessary to analyse the changes that were expected to be implemented for improving the banking system. Such a change had a direct impact on the financial budget that is prepared by the federal authorities of the country. In the usual process, the rules for budget are updated so as to implement the changes that would help in amending the financial system. This is one of the most important factors that would help in the development of the country and the people. However due to manipulation of the price and the reports by the banks impacts the financial position of the country. Apart from this, wrong sales of mortgage loans and other factors affects the confidence of the people. This affects the savings, which is quite important for the successful business operational activities of the federal authorities. Thus, the goals that were drafted by the authorities had to face unexpected challenges (Morgan Stanley Research, 2010). Just like the under-developed and developing countries, the developed nations have to make the best use of the resources. The resources include finance, human, and knowledge. This has to be done, so as to provide the best support to the economic developmental program that has been drafted by the authorities of the nation. In this case, the structural reformat program has to be drafted and implemented in the best possible manner. This will help the management in adapting and implementing the best reformat programs that will be suitable for the nation and the people. Improper performance of the banks was one of the major roadblocks that could directly affect the economic development of the country. This also includes developing and implementing the best policies for introducing the investment plan that were required in the private sector factors. It is quite important for the banks and other financial sectors to concentre on the development of the industries, as it could generate stabl e and lucrative jobs for the people (Song, 2009). Changes in the policies The federal authorities of the country are working towards introducing the best policies for improving the banking rules. This is being also done to increase the transparent level that has been followed by the banks. In other words, the banks and the financial system are expected to provide maximum information to the clients. In fact, the offer to sell the product shouldnt be forceful. Apart from this, the strategies followed by the authorities have to be impressive and intend to benefit the customers. This is one of the factors that would positively contribute towards the development of the nation and the people. Such a factor will also help the management to cope with the slowdown in the economic condition (Nouy, 2000). Banking theories As per bank capital regulation theory, it is stated that the policies and strategies needs to be regulated. This will help in controlling the down performance of various factors that causes market failure. In such a case, it becomes imperative to analyse the external factors that can affect the performance of the banks. Thus, it is stated that the performance of the banks, including its policies needs to be regulated. This will help in improving the performance of the financial institutions. The theory highlights the features of the systemic crisis that are associated with the performance of the banks. The other factor that needs to be considered in this process is the inability of the depositor to check on the performance of the banks. In the systemic risk argument, it is stated that the banks that renders the liquid services to the clients has to update the accounts on a regular basis. This has been done with an intention of analysing the reason for liquidating the assets that is held by the banks. At this time, it is essential to provide the depositors with the right information that would talk about the value of the deposits. Such factors would reduce the possibilities of providing wrong information to the clients, and other institutes (Stein, 2010). In the other case, the banks are recommended to invest in the riskless securities. This basically includes short term securities that have been issued by the federal authorities. However the challenges that are involved in the process have to be analysed. Theory on the depositors expectations It has been stated that the banking policies and rules has to be regularised, as this will help in handing the challenges that are faced by the authorities and clients. It means the ownership factors needs to be differentiated from the management. This will improve the performance and help the banking authorities to make the right decision. The rules associated with the same needs to be communicated effectively with the members, companies, and other organizations that are a part of the banking activities. The contracts and other deals have to be clearly mentioned and discussed with the clients and other individuals who are associated with the performance of the banks. This will help the depositors to analyse the challenges and get a clarification about the tasks that were expected to be performed by the banks. It is true that the depositors are not vested with the responsibilities to check on the performance of the bank. However, it is equally true that the authorities need to make t he right choice through which the necessary changes in case of the performance of the bank can be implemented this is one of the most important factors that would help in adopting the best strategies through which the necessary changes can be implemented by the federal authorities (Stiroh and Strahan, 2003). Such regulations have to be implemented as it would help the banking authorities to do the right things through which the policies and the performance of the banks can be improved. Apart from this, the banking frauds and other inabilities can be overpowered. This will help in adopting and implementing the right steps through which the performance of the banks can be improved (Song, 2009). Conclusion The challenges faced by the banks and the federal authorities have to be analysed. This will help in analysing the issues and taking the right steps through which the quality of the services provided by the banks can be improved. This is necessary to ensure that the members have the necessary information through which the issues related to the banking methods and policies can be evaluated. In this process, the policies have to be evaluated and the corrective steps needs to be taken to introduce the necessary changes that will help in increasing the performance. References Adrian and Shin, 2007. "Liquidity and Leverage" forthcoming in Journal of Financial Intermediation. BIS Woing Papers, 2000.Bank Capital Regulation In Contemporary Banking Theory: A Review Of The Literature. Viewed on 3rd Febuary, 2014. Retrieved from https://www.bis.org/publ/work90.pdf Gorton B, and Metrick A, 2010. Securitized Banking and the Run on Repo. Yale ICF Working Paper 09-14. Gordy, M.B. (2000): A Comparative Anatomy of Credit Risk Models, Journal of Banking and Finance 24, 119-149. Jones, D. (2000): Emerging Problems with the Basel Accord: Regulatory Capital Arbitrage and Related Issues, Journal of Banking and Finance 14, 35-58. Mitchell A, 2013. 10 Most Important Economic Events of 2013. Viewed on 3rd Febuary, 2014. Retrieved from https://wallstcheatsheet.com/stocks/10-most-important-economic-events-of-2013.html/?a=viewall Morgan Stanley Research, 2010. European Banks: 49 Billion of Swiss CoCos. Nouy, D. (2000): Reforming Bank Capital Requirements Presentation at the Bank Structure Conference of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Song S, 2009. Reflections on Northern Rock: The Bank Run that Heralded the Global Financial Crisis. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 23(1), 101119. Stein C, 2010b. Securitization, Shadow Banking, and Financial Fragility. Daedalus, 139(4): 4151. Stiroh J and Strahan E, 2003. Competitive Dynamics of Deregulation: Evidence from U.S. Banking. Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 35(5): 80128.

Louis Simpsons The Battle Formalist Criticism

Introduction Born on 27th March, 1923, Louis Aston Marantz Simpson is one of America’s best know poets. He has won many awards in his field, including the 1964’s Pulitzer Prize for Poetry. The latter was in recognition for one of his works, At The End of the Open Road. Born in Jamaica, his family migrated to the United States of America while he was 17.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Louis Simpson’s The Battle: Formalist Criticism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For two years (between 1943 and 1945), he fought for America during World War II. This experience shaped most of his works when he started writing after the war. He served as a messenger between his company’s headquarters and the soldiers fighting on the front line. Most of his poems and other works are narratives of his experiences as a messenger. The Battle is one of his well known poems that depict the experiences of a mes senger on the front line. In four stanzas and sixteen lines, Louis takes the reader through the horrors of war, which is the major theme of this poem. In this paper, the author is going to provide the reader with a critique of this poem. The poem will be critiqued using the formalist criticism theory. Among the issues that will be addressed in this critique is the structure and organization of the poem, the way the poem begins and how it proceeds from the beginning. The author will also look at how the poem ends, the plot of the work and how this plot is related to the structure of the poem. The Battle: Structure and Organization of the Poem The poem is structured in four stanzas and sixteen lines (Poetry365 1-16). Louis seems to be seeking for a balance in the structure of the poem. This is given the fact that each of the stanzas is made up of four lines, mimicking the four stanzas of the poem. This creates some semblance of proportionality between the stanzas and the whole poem. H owever, the structure of the lines is not uniform throughout the poem. For example, some of the lines are made of two sentences separated by a full stop, a case in point been the second line â€Å"Marched through a forest. Somewhere up ahead† (Poetry360 2). Others are made of single sentences separated by a comma, for example the first line â€Å"Helmet and rifle, pack and overcoat† (Poetry360 1). Still, other lines are made of a single, solid and unbroken sentence, for example the 6th line â€Å"into the clammy earth between the trees† (Poetry360 6). Beginning of the Poem Louis begins the poem by providing the reader with an imagery of a soldier. Though he does not mention the word soldier anywhere, the selection of words in the first line leaves no doubt that the poet is talking of a soldier. He begins by â€Å"Helmet and rifle, pack and overcoat† (Poetry360 1).Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The soldier described in this line is obviously headed for combat, and this is made clear by the inclusion of â€Å"rifle† in his cargo. It is also made clear that the weather is cold, and that is why the soldier carries an overcoat. It is probably in winter, and the soldier is headed to the battle line. Where does it go? The tone that Louis starts with in the first stanza is maintained throughout the poem for the larger part. For example, he starts by using imagery, and this appears in the other stanzas of the poem. For example, in the eleventh line, he talks of â€Å"†¦.The snow was black† (Poetry360 11). Snow is generally white, but by describing it as â€Å"black snow†, Louis conjures in the reader’s mind an image of snow with its purity interfered with by the flow of blood from the fallen and injured soldiers. The poem starts with a description of the soldier embarking from the camp and to the fr ont line. The poem continues to trace the journey of the soldier into the woods, towards the battle field. In the third stanza, Louis describes how the soldier, now on the front line, faces the â€Å"†¦.(the) shells and bullets (sweeping) the icy woods† (Poetry360 10). The poem paints a horrific picture of what the soldier goes through in the battle field. How does the Poem End? The poem ends with the persona telling the reader what they remembered about the battle. It appears that the persona is not involved in combat; he assumes the tone of a bystander. He describes the appearance of the soldiers, â€Å"The tiredness in (their) eyes, (and) how hands looked thin† (Poetry360 14). The only bright thin about the soldier’s appearance is the bright ember around their cigar. The poem closes with the line â€Å"†¦., and the bright ember (of the cigarette)/Would pulse with all the life there was within† (Poetry360 15, 16). This line creates an image of a soldier, who is as frail as the ember of the cigarette he is smoking. The Plot The poem gives the story of soldiers leaving the camp to go to the battle field. Armed with their rifles, they march through the forest, and towards the sound of thudding guns. The story given in this poem does not seem to paint a good picture regarding the battle. The poet describes scenes full of â€Å"black snow†, and if the black color can be taken as the color of coagulated blood on the snow, then it seems there was a lot of bloodshed. Relationship of the Poem’s Plot to its Structure Some comparisons can be drawn between the plot of the poem and its structure. As earlier indicated, the poem structure appears balanced, with four stanzas with four lines each. However, this is in contrast with the plot of the poem. There is nothing balanced about the life of the soldier, or the battle that is being fought. If there was balance in the society, maybe the war would have been unnecessary.Ad vertising We will write a custom essay sample on Louis Simpson’s The Battle: Formalist Criticism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, it can be said that the soldiers in the battle and the war in general, is aimed at achieving some balance in the society, balance like that of the poem’s structure. The contradiction between the poem’s structure and the plot extends to individual lines in the poem. For example, in describing the soldier going to war in line 1, the poet describes the soldier putting on his fatigues and taking his weapons from back to front. For example, one would expect the soldier to first put on the overcoat, then heist his pack on his soldiers, take the rifle and finally put on the helmet. But Louis does not see it this way. Instead, the soldier first wears the â€Å"Helmet (then takes the) rifle, pack and overcoat† (Poetry360 1). Conclusion In his poem The Battle, Louis describes soldiers going to the battle line, and what transpires there. The major theme in the poem is the horrors of war. This paper criticized the poem from a formalist perspective. Among the aspects of the poem addressed is the beginning and ending of the poem, the plot of the poem and how the poem is related to its structure. Works Cited Poetry365. The Battle, Louis Simpson. Poetry365. August 9, 2009. Web. This essay on Louis Simpson’s The Battle: Formalist Criticism was written and submitted by user Carolyn S. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Curious Effects on Benjamin Button Essays

The Curious Effects on Benjamin Button Essays The Curious Effects on Benjamin Button Essay The Curious Effects on Benjamin Button Essay The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008) directed by David Fincher, is about an unusual story of a man living his life in reverse. Benjamin’s father abandons him at birth, but he finds refuge from a lovely young lady during the U.S civil war in New Orleans. As days pass Benjamin grows stronger and younger thus aging backwards leading him to experience war, parenthood and love. The sets are outstandingly realistic and detailed, bringing sense of authenticity. With the help of make-up, CGI, and sound effects, Benjamin’s reversed life from old age to babyhood look convincing, like a documentary. The make up really emphasizes the age of the characters and makes them look natural. During the first two hours of the film Benjamin is old and has the key features of an elderly person. (For instance the wrinkles, saggy skin, pale dried lips, freckles, and loss of hair). Sculptors’ and painters’ achieved the old age look by creating three life-cast silicon sculptures of Brad Pitt (Seymour). By adding life-like skin and hair to the sculptures the maquettes look like people in their 80s, 70s, and late 60s (Seymour). Through scanning, the maquettes turn into 3D images that overlay the actors’ faces during the first 52 minutes of the film (Seymour). Surprisingly, Daisy is the old woman at the beginning of the movie telling the story with her daughter. Daisy’s facial process is almost the same but instead of creating a maquette, the mould of the face is put on (Seymour). After the mould is assembled, it is then put on Cate Blanchett’s (Daisy) face and m ake up artists’ begins the process of blending combinations of makeup and brushes to make her look old (Seymour). As the movie progresses, small factors, such as smile lines around the lips and the change of colour in the characters hair helped determine the characters age. One instance is when Daisy and Queenie, smiles, there is wrinkles around the lips and the change of colour in their hair when they got older.) The same for Benjamin after the one hour mark he begins to look noticeably younger. He starts losing his wrinkles, pale skin, dried lips, grey hair, and freckles. Noticing these minuscule features really helped the audience recognize that the characters are aging. CGI plays a main component in the film and is astonishingly unnoticeable. In the first 52 minutes of the movie Brad Pitt is actually not acting as Benjamin Button (Seymour). Through 3D images from the maquettes, the actors’ faces begin to resemble Brad Pitt’s face as Benjamin from computer editing (Seymour). This allows the director to portray to the audience a smaller and older version of Brad Pitt without him physically being smaller. Unfortunately, the maquettes alone are unable to manipulate human facial movements, like talking, smiling, and blinking (Seymour). By surrounding Brad Pitt with twenty eight cameras and phosphorescent make-up; the directors is able to capture his facial expressions and movements frame by frame (Seymour). The static faces of the maquettes are then given life-like human expressions through image analysis technology from the recordings in the cameras (Seymour). On the other hand, Daisy and Queenie did not need any actors to replace them or editing to capture their facial expressions, but they did need something else. Make-up alone was unable to give them the young and old look so digital editing and visual effects was used. With digital editing and visual effects the editors are able to add and remove wrinkles and shadowing on the actors, making them look younger or older (Seymour). It’s intriguing how adding and removing wrinkles is by digital editing is unnoticeable to us. Without a doubt, other effects that is unnoticeably well done and that the audience is unable to pick up are the sound effects. Since Benjamin, in the first 52 minutes of the movie is not Brad Pitt; he is put in a room, re-enacting the scenes through a monitor while recording his voice (Seymour). With the help of the cast and computer editing, the voice is then put into sync with Benjamin’s CGI’s making it look like the images is talking (Seymour). A simple effect some audiences might not pick up that contribute to the film’s scenes is the volume level. Increasing and decreasing the level of the volume really makes the audience change their moods accordingly, without even realizing it. For example, when Benjamin is on the ship and is fighting against an enemy ship; the volume and sound effects dramatically increases. This gives the audience a sense of adrenaline and awareness that something life threatening is happening. Lastly, simple sound effects like closing the door, walking, eating, and putting on a jacket might sound silly but does interact with audience without them knowing. Since we do encounter these objects and activities in our everyday lives, when we hear these effects it makes the audience unknowingly comparing the sounds they hear in real life. This makes the film more realistic and convincing. In analysis with the help of make-up, CGI, and sound effects are pulled off exceptionally well making Benjamin’s life look convincing. Even though the story is bit unusual it gives the audience a feel of authenticity, like a life told story from a documentary. There is something that’s been on my mind though. It’s already strange Benjamin is bold old, but if he was born old why is he the size of an infant?

The election system in Mexico Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The election system in Mexico - Essay Example The person who gets more votes selects for the leading of state and government affairs. Present electoral process is the modified form and it continuously changed its shape according to the revolutionary demands of history. By electoral process a common man gets the power to select its own leader so it is the power of people not power of lords. By this process every one participate in the decision making process related to the state future and its people. Past scenario The history of politics in Mexico started by the independence on Sep 16th 1810 in the town of Dolores Hidalgo. The priest Miguel Hidalgo Costilla kept the first mile stone of the political background in the Mexico. So the start of politics was by the priest and the head of state was to be priest and church as the office for serving political issues. Till 1858 the same system was implemented for political orders but due to its draw backs and un justice affairs the state was separated from church by Benito Juarez, a Zapo tec from Oaxaca, became president and order to separate both the church and state from each other as both are different things can’t work properly together. Mexicans struggled hard for modification of their political system. The Revolution of 1910-20 was a mile stone of their struggle and change towards improvement in politics. They make the constitution of 1917, by which they described the grounds for their modern political system .Mexico's governing institutions and political culture also have great effect of three centuries of Spanish colonial rule on their structure and working procedure. Current scenario The Mexico politics framework consist of a federal presidential representative democratic whose government is based on a congressional system, the president of Mexico at same time perform duties of head the of state and head of the government. The executive power is in hand of the executive branch, and president President runs it as he has a cabinet of secretaries advise s the executive branch that are independent of the legislature. . The main important political parties working in Mexico politics are: (PAN), the (PRD) and (PRI). The citizen of Mexico above the 18 years old can participate in the vote casting process, The vote casting is compulsory but not enforced on the citizens. The main documents needed for the participation of the citizen in vote casting process are their identity documents there is no pre registration system in the Mexico for election process. For the electoral process there is no electoral college etc and can take place in any governmental and nongovernmental place. In exceptional cases when the head is missing due to some cause the system of selection can be change and can adopt other options of selection too. The presidentional elections in Mexico take place after each six years, although in exceptional cases the time line can be change according to situations. Legislative elections are scheduled every six years for the el ections for the senate and state usually take place together and elections for the he Chamber of Deputies held in every three years. Mostly elections are held on first Sunday of July. The selection procedure for the state governors are also similar to that of the head and elections for the purpose of state governors selections held after six years, legislatures elections are renewed after every three years.

Is There a Need for Restriction on the Use of Mobile Phones in Public Essay

Is There a Need for Restriction on the Use of Mobile Phones in Public Areas - Essay Example I feel strongly that people like me who were disrupted from enjoying the movie by these unwelcome interruptions could only think about the mobile phone users as uncivilized people who were not supposed to be there in the first place. It is at these times that people wish that mobile phones were banned altogether. However, taking into account the fact that mobile phones have become an integral part of life these days, like water and air, one would have to compromise a bit and think of effective restrictions on the use of mobile phones in public places. There could be innumerable reasons to support the view that mobile phones should be banned from public places. First of all, one person’s need to communicate with her/his dear ones should not interfere with the peace of mind and enjoyment another person seeks in a well-reputed public place. If someone needs to be in touch with others through the mobile phone while at a public place, it would be a thoughtful act to keep the phone in silent mode and answer them by going out of the place, or by text messaging. Another reason why one should refrain from using mobile phones in public places is that it would attract unnecessary attention to the one using it. The person using the phone would usually forget the surroundings and talk louder than necessary, forcing others to listen to her/his personal affairs. Some people just try to display how expensive their phone is and how many features it has by using them all in one place. I have even witnessed some teenagers who watch video clip s in a theatre, with the volume set too high, while a movie for which they took an expensive ticket plays helplessly in front of them, in the big screen.  

Cost Theory Essay Example for Free

Cost Theory Essay Once a plant owner spends money to manufacture goods, that money is no longer available for something else. Production facilities, machinery used in the production process and plant workers are all examples of costs. Cost theory offers an approach to understanding the costs of production that allows firms to determine the level of output that reaps the greatest level of profit at the least cost. 2. Features * Cost theory contains various measures of costs. These include a firms fixed costs and variable costs. The former do not vary with the quantity of goods produced. Rent on a facility is an example of a fixed cost. Variable costs change with the quantity produced. If increased production requires more workers, for example, those workers wages are variable costs. The sum of fixed and variable costs is a firms total costs. * Additional Measures * Cost theory derives two additional cost measures. Average total cost is the total cost divided by the number of goods produced. Marginal cost is the increase in total cost that results from increasing production by one unit of output. Marginalsincluding marginal costs and marginal revenueare key concepts in mainstream economic thought. Falling and Rising Costs * Economists often use graphs, similar to supply-and-demand charts, to illustrate cost theory and firms decisions about production. An average total cost curve is a U-shaped curve on an economic diagram. This shape illustrates how average total costs decline as output rises and then rise as marginal costs increase. Average total costs decline at first because as production rises, average costs are distributed over a larger number of units of output. Eventually, marginal costs of increasing output rise, which increases average total costs. Maximizing Profits * Economic theory holds that the goal of a firm is to maximize profit, which equals total revenue minus total cost. Determining a level of production that generates the greatest level of profit is an important consideration, one that means paying attention to marginal costs, as well as marginal revenue (the increase in revenue arising from an increase in output). Under cost theory, as long as marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, increasing production will raise profit. Types of Cost Economics Economists factor costs in many different ways. Though you may read the cost of a soup can at $1 as it’s listed on the grocery store shelf, economists view the cost of the soup can in very different ways. For example, an economist asks what you are giving up to buy that can of soup over another item. They measure the firm’s cost of producing that soup can as it relates to their output and factors of production. Thus, the different types of economic costs are varied. 1. Sunk Cost * A sunk cost is an expense that cannot be recouped. Mark Hirschy, author of the book, â€Å"Fundamentals of Managerial Economics,† explains that sunk costs should not factor into a decision when deciding between alternatives. For example, say a person spent $50,000 on a degree in education and earns $60,000 as a teacher. She is later offered a job in marketing that pays her $80,000. Though she may be tempted to factor in her education degree as reason to stay in her current teaching job, her $50,000 degree is regarded as a sunk cost. She already spent this money, and it cannot be recouped. In this case, she should only compare the respective salaries of the positions. If all else is held equal, she should pursue the marketing job. Opportunity Cost * An opportunity cost is the value of an alternative choice. Though the word â€Å"cost† usually equates to a numerical value, like a dollar figure, this is not always the case. William Baumol and Alan Blinder, authors of the book, Economics: Principles and Policy, state that an opportunity cost calculates intangible things like time, location and job satisfaction. They explain opportunity costs are what you give up to follow one course of action. For example, a college graduate is deciding between a job as a tech consultant in Seattle or an investment broker in New York City. If the grad pursues the investment broker position, the opportunity costs of foregoing the job in Seattle could be a slower pace of life, $10,000 higher salary and lower costs of living like rent and food. * Marginal Cost * A marginal cost is the amount it takes to produce one more item. Under this view of costs, they vary along the production line and in most cases the cost to produce a good reduces over time. Intuitively, this makes sense: the more proficient you become at producing a good, the faster you can do it and less waste is produced. The savings in labor and material as you achieve â€Å"economies of scale† means the cost of production usually decreases. The way economists find the marginal cost is by taking the derivative of the total costs as it relates to the total output. How to Find Marginal Cost in Economics Deciding whether to produce more units is often based on marginal cost. The economic concept of marginal cost is the cost associated with producing one additional unit. This information is important to businesses because it allows the company to decide if the additional unit is worth producing from a financial standpoint. When a company produces a small amount of product, the cost of additional units often decrease. However, marginal costs increase when additional units are added once the production level reaches a minimum. This is based on the law of diminishing marginal returns. Instructions 1. * 1 Calculate the change in total variable cost. This is the amount that the costs increased by after additional units are produced. For example, if youd like to produce more T-shirts and the increase in output would change the costs by $100, then the total variable cost is $100. * 2 Find the change in quantity produced. This represents how many additional units you would like to produce in the given scenario. For example, the change in quantity would be 50 if youd like to produce 300 T-shirts instead of 250. * 3 Divide the change in total variable costs from Step 1 by the change in quantity from Step 2. This will give you the marginal cost (marginal cost = the change in total variable cost/the change in quantity). For this example, $100 (the change in total variable cost) / 50 (the change in quantity) = $2 in marginal costs, which is the cost of producing each additional T-shirt. What Is the Relationship Between Production ;amp; Cost? Production costs are linked to t he cost of materials and labor. The relationship between production and cost in any manufacturing process varies based on volume produced and whether any part of the manufacturing process is outsourced or performed by subcontractors. Additionally, production and cost ratios vary based on the amount of automation involved in production and the amount of human oversight and involvement required. 1. Factors of Production * The main factors of production are labor, capital and supply costs. Capital is defined as equipment, cash reserves, and physical location or production facility. Labor is defined as the amount of and cost of manpower required to bring a product to market. This includes not only the physical labor and oversight related to product production, but also the associated costs of salaries of positions such as managers, delivery drivers, warehouse supervisors, marketing directors and even administrative assistance. Supply costs are any fee associated with securing necessary materials for production. Subcontractor or outsourced work is considered a supply cost as well, as the manufacturer is essentially purchasing a product or service for use in the production process. In this example, work such as offsite creation of product packaging or assembly of minor components of a finished product are considered supply costs in the same way the purchase of raw materials are considered supply costs. Volume of Production * Volume of production figures signify the amount of products being produced. Typically, the greater the volume the lower the cost per unit as raw material suppliers often offer discounts on mass or bulk orders. Volume of production is based on a company’s anticipated product needs, past sales records and placed orders. * Volume of Business * The relationship between production and cost is frequently determined by the volume of business a company is doing. An example that illustrates this point is a multinational vitamin supplement company that produces vitamins in bulk compared to a small health food chain that produces its own vitamin line in small quantities. The cost of the product produced by the small company will typically be greater than the cost of the product offered by the bulk manufacturer because the smaller company produces its product in smaller volumes. Price Points The more it costs a company to produce a product, the greater price the company will have to charge consumers. A company’s production costs include the price of materials, the cost of manpower, the production and packaging process, advertising, and distribution. Mass producers may be able to offer more competitive pricing to end users because they have the luxury of working on a thin margin due to the large volume of production. In microeconomics, the long run is the conceptual time period in which there are no fixed factors of production as to changing the output level by changing the capital stock or by entering or leaving an industry. The long run contrasts with the short run, in which some factors are variable and others are fixed, constraining entry or exit from an industry. In macroeconomics, the long run is the period when the general price level, contractual wage rates, and expectations adjust fully to the state of the economy, in contrast to the short run when these variables may not fully adjust. [1] In the long run, firms change production levels in response to (expected) economic profits or losses, and the land, labor, capital goods and entrepreneurship vary to reach associated long-run average cost. In the simplified case of plant capacity as the only fixed factor, a generic firm can make these changes in the long run: * enter an industry in response to (expected) profits * leave an industry in response to losses * increase its plant in response to profits * decrease its plant in response to losses. Long-run average-cost curve with economies of scale to Q2 and diseconomies of scale thereafter. The long run is associated with the long-run average cost (LRAC) curve in microeconomic models along which a firm would minimize its average cost (cost per unit) for each respective long-run quantity of output. Long-run marginal cost (LRMC) is the added cost of providing an additional unit of service or commodity from changing capacity level to reach the lowest cost associated with that extra output. LRMC equalling price is efficient as to resource allocation in the long run. The concept of long-run cost is also used in determining whether the long-run expected to induce the firm to remain in the industry or shut down production there. In long-run equilibrium of an industry in which perfect competition prevails, the LRMC = Long run average LRAC at the minimum LRAC and associated output. The shape of the long-run marginal and average costs curves is determined by economies of scale. The long run is a planning and implementation stage. [2][3] Here a firm may decide that it needs to produce on a larger scale by building a new plant or adding a production line. The firm may decide that new technology should be incorporated into its production process. The firm thus considers all its long-run production options and selects the optimal combination of inputs and technology for its long-run urposes. [4] The optimal combination of inputs is the least-cost combination of inputs for desired level of output when all inputs are variable. [3] Once the decisions are made and implemented and production begins, the firm is operating in the short run with fixed and variable inputs. [3][5] Short run All production in real time occurs in the short run. The short run is the conceptual time period in which at least one factor of production is fixed in amount and others are variable in am ount. Costs that are fixed, say from existing plant size, have no impact on a firms short-run decisions, since only variable costs and revenues affect short-run profits. Such fixed costs raise the associated short-run average cost of an output long-run average cost if the amount of the fixed factor is better suited for a different output level. In the short run, a firm can raise output by increasing the amount of the variable factor(s), say labor through overtime. A generic firm already producing in an industry can make three changes in the short run as a response to reach a posited equilibrium: * increase production decrease production * shut down. In the short run, a profit-maximizing firm will: * increase production if marginal cost is less than marginal revenue (added revenue per additional unit of output); * decrease production if marginal cost is greater than marginal revenue; * continue producing if average variable cost is less than price per unit, even if average total cost is gre ater than price; * shut down if average variable cost is greater than price at each level of output. Transition from short run to long run The transition from the short run to the long run may be done by considering some short-run equilibrium that is also a long-run equilibrium as to supply and demand, then comparing that state against a new short-run and long-run equilibrium state from a change that disturbs equilibrium, say in the sales-tax rate, tracing out the short-run adjustment first, then the long-run adjustment. Each is an example of comparative statics. Alfred Marshall (1890) pioneered in comparative-static period analysis. [6] He istinguished between the temporary or market period (with output fixed), the short period, and the long period. Classic contemporary graphical and formal treatments include those of Jacob Viner (1931),[7] John Hicks (1939),[8] and Paul Samuelson (1947). [9] The law of diminishing marginal returns The law of diminishing marginal returns to a variable factor applies to the short run. [10] It posits an effect of decreased added or marginal product of from variable factors, which increas es the supply price of added output. [11] The law is related to a positive slope of the short-run marginal-cost curve. 12] Macroeconomic usages The usage of long run and short run in macroeconomics differs somewhat from the above microeconomic usage. J. M. Keynes (1936) emphasized fundamental factors of a market economy that might result in prolonged periods away from full-employment. [13] In later macro usage, the long run is the period in which the price level for the economy is completely flexible as to shifts in aggregate demand and aggregate supply. In addition there is full mobility of labor and capital between sectors of the economy and full capital mobility between nations. In the short run none of these conditions need fully hold. The price is sticky or fixed as to changes in aggregate demand or supply, capital is not fully mobile between sectors, and capital is not fully mobile to interest rate differences among countries amp; fixed exchange rates. [14] A famous critique of neglecting short-run analysis was by John Maynard Keynes, who wrote that In the long run, we are all dead, referring to the long-run proposition of the quantity theory of, for example, a doubling of the money supply doubling the price level. 15] Marginal  Analysis Thinking at the  Margin From Mike Moffatt, former About. com Guide From an economists perspective, making choices involves making decisions at the margin that is, making decisions based on small changes in resources: * How should I spend the next hour? * How should I spend the next dollar? On the surface, this seems like a strange way of considering the choices made by people and firms. It is rare that someone would consciously ask themselves How will I spend dollar number 24,387? , How will I spend dollar number 24,388? . Treating the problem in this matter does have some distinct advantages: * Doing so leads to the optimal decisions being made, subject to preferences, resources and informational constraints. * It makes the problem less messy from an analytic point of view, as we are not trying to analyze a million decisions at once. * While this does not exactly mimic conscious decision making processes, it does provide results similar to the decisions people actually make. That is, people may not think using this method, but the decisions they make are as if they do. Marginal Analysis An Example Consider the decision on how many hours to work, as given by the following chart: Hour Hourly Wage Value of Time Hour 1 $10 $2 Hour 2 $10 $2 Hour 3 $10 $3 Hour 4 $10 $3 Hour 5 $10 $4 Hour 6 $10 $5 Hour 7 $10 $6 Hour 8 $10 $8 Hour 9 $15 $9 Hour 10 $15 $12 Hour 11 $15 $18 Hour 12 $15 $20 The hourly wage represents what I earn for working an extra hour it is the marginal gain or the marginal benefit. The value of time is essentially an opportunity cost it is how much I value having that hour off. In this example it represents a marginal cost what it costs me by working an additional hour. The increase in marginal costs is a common phenomenon; I do not mind working a few hours since there are 24 hours in a day. I still have plenty of time to do other things. However, as I start to work more hours it reduces the number of hours I have for other activities. I have to start giving up more and more valuable opportunities to work those extra hours. It is clear that I should work the first hour, as I gain $10 in marginal benefits and lose only $2 in marginal costs, for a net gain of $8. By the same logic I should work the second and third hours as well. I will want to work until which time the marginal cost exceeds the marginal benefit. I will want to work the 10th hour as I receive a net benefit of #3 (marginal benefit of $15, marginal cost of $12). However, I will not want to work the 11th hour, as the marginal cost ($18) exceeds the marginal benefit ($15) by three dollars. Thus marginal analysis suggests that rational maximizing behavior is to work for 10 hours. Next Lesson: Market Distortions: Altering the Supply and Demand Equilibrium. Marginal Analysis * Marginal Revenue Glossary Dictionary Definition of Marginal Revenue * Marginal Significance Value Glossary Dictionary Definition of Marginal Si * Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost Practice Question Related Articles * Running a Private Practice Working with Animals * Work Stress Long Work Hours Are Not the Culprit * Open for Business: Scheduling Your Week Being a Personal Trainer * Three Union Work Rules That Increase the Cost of Operating Transit * Hold On to Your Sanity Start Your Own Business AN INTRODUCTION TO COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS| * Background * Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) estimates and totals up the equivalent money value of the benefits and costs to the community of projects to establish whether they are worthwhile. These projects may be dams and highways or can be training programs and health care systems. * The idea of this economic accounting originated with Jules Dupuit, a French engineer whose 1848 article is still worth reading. The British economist, Alfred Marshall, formulated some of the formal concepts that are at the foundation of CBA. But the practical development of CBA came as a result of the impetus provided by the Federal Navigation Act of 1936. This act required that the U. S. Corps of Engineers carry out projects for the improvement of the waterway system when the total benefits of a project to whomsoever they accrue exceed the costs of that project. Thus, the Corps of Engineers had created systematic methods for measuring such benefits and costs. The engineers of the Corps did this without much, if any, assistance from the economics profession. It wasnt until about twenty years later in the 1950s that economists tried to provide a rigorous, consistent set of methods for measuring benefits and costs and deciding whether a project is worthwhile. Some technical issues of CBA have not been wholly resolved even now but the fundamental presented in the following are well established. * Principles of Cost Benefit Analysis * One of the problems of CBA is that the computation of many components of benefits and costs is intuitively obvious but that there are others for which intuition fails to suggest methods of measurement. Therefore some basic principles are needed as a guide. There Must Be a Common Unit of Measurement * In order to reach a conclusion as to the desirability of a project all aspects of the project, positive and negative, must be expressed in terms of a common unit; i. e. , there must be a bottom line. The most convenient common unit is money. This means that all benefits and costs of a project should be measured in terms of their equivalent money value. A program may provide benefits which are not directly expressed in terms of dollars but there is some amount of money the recipients of the benefits would consider just as good as the projects benefits. For example, a project may provide for the elderly in an area a free monthly visit to a doctor. The value of that benefit to an elderly recipient is the minimum amount of money that that recipient would take instead of the medical care. This could be less than the market value of the medical care provided. It is assumed that more esoteric benefits such as from preserving open space or historic sites have a finite equivalent money value to the public. * Not only do the benefits and costs of a project have to be expressed in terms of equivalent money value, but they have to be expressed in terms of dollars of a particular time. This is not just due to the differences in the value of dollars at different times because of inflation. A dollar available five years from now is not as good as a dollar available now. This is because a dollar available now can be invested and earn interest for five years and would be worth more than a dollar in five years. If the interest rate is r then a dollar invested for t years will grow to be (1+r)t. Therefore the amount of money that would have to be deposited now so that it would grow to be one dollar t years in the future is (1+r)-t. This called the discounted value or present value of a dollar available t years in the future. * When the dollar value of benefits at some time in the future is multiplied by the discounted value of one dollar at that time in the future the result is discounted present value of that benefit of the project. The same thing applies to costs. The net benefit of the projects is just the sum of the present value of the benefits less the present value of the costs. * The choice of the appropriate interest rate to use for the discounting is a separate issue that will be treated later in this paper. CBA Valuations Should Represent Consumers or Producers Valuations As Revealed by Their Actual Behavior * The valuation of benefits and costs should reflect preferences revealed by choices which have been made. For example, improvements in transportation frequently involve saving time. The question is how to measure the money value of that time saved. The value should not be merely what transportat ion planners think time should be worth or even what people say their time is worth. The value of time should be that which the public reveals their time is worth through choices involving tradeoffs between time and money. If people have a choice of parking close to their destination for a fee of 50 cents or parking farther away and spending 5 minutes more walking and they always choose to spend the money and save the time and effort then they have revealed that their time is more valuable to them than 10 cents per minute. If they were indifferent between the two choices they would have revealed that the value of their time to them was exactly 10 cents per minute. * The most challenging part of CBA is finding past choices which reveal the tradeoffs and equivalencies in preferences. For example, the valuation of the benefit of cleaner air could be established by finding how much less people paid for housing in more polluted areas which otherwise was identical in characteristics and location to housing in less polluted areas. Generally the value of cleaner air to people as revealed by the hard market choices seems to be less than their rhetorical valuation of clean air. * Benefits Are Usually Measured by Market Choices * When consumers make purchases at market prices they reveal that the things they buy are at least as beneficial to them as the money they relinquish. Consumers will increase their consumption of any commodity up to the point where the benefit of an additional unit (marginal benefit) is equal to the marginal cost to them of that unit, the market price. Therefore for any consumer buying some of a commodity, the marginal benefit is equal to the market price. The marginal benefit will decline with the amount consumed just as the market price has to decline to get consumers to consume a greater quantity of the commodity. The relationship between the market price and the quantity consumed is called the demand schedule. Thus the demand schedule provides the information about marginal benefit that is needed to place a money value on an increase in consumption. * Gross Benefits of an Increase in Consumption is an Area Under the Demand Curve * The increase in benefits resulting from an increase in consumption is the sum of the marginal benefit times each incremental increase in consumption. As the incremental increases considered are taken as smaller and smaller the sum goes to the area under the marginal benefit curve. But the marginal benefit curve is the same as the demand curve so the increase in benefits is the area under the demand curve. As shown in Figure 1 the area is over the range from the lower limit of consumption before the increase to consumption after the increase. * Figure 1 * When the increase in consumption is small compared to the total consumption the gross benefit is adequately approximated, as is shown in a welfare analysis, by the market value of the increased consumption; i. e. , market price times the increase in consumption. * Some Measurements of Benefits Require the Valuation of Human Life * It is sometimes necessary in CBA to evaluate the benefit of saving human lives. There is considerable antipathy in the general public to the idea of placing a dollar value on human life. Economists recognize that it is impossible to fund every project which promises to save a human life and that some rational basis is needed to select which projects are approved and which are turned down. The controversy is defused when it is recognized that the benefit of such projects is in reducing the risk of death. There are many cases in which people voluntarily accept increased risks in return for higher pay, such as in the oil fields or mining, or for time savings in higher speed in automobile travel. These choices can be used to estimate the personal cost people place on increased risk and thus the value to them of reduced risk. This computation is equivalent to placing an economic value on the expected number of lives saved. * The Analysis of a Project Should Involve a With Versus Without Comparison * The impact of a project is the difference between what the situation in the study area would be with and without the project. This that when a project is being evaluated the analysis must estimate not only what the situation would be with the project but also what it would be without the project. For example, in determining the impact of a fixed guideway rapid transit system such as the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) in the San Francisco Bay Area the number of rides that would have been taken on an expansion of the bus system should be deducted from the rides provided by BART and likewise the additional costs of such an expanded bus system would be deducted from the costs of BART. In other words, the alternative to the project must be explicitly specified and considered in the evaluation of the project. Note that the with-and-without comparison is not the same as a before-and-after comparison. Another example shows the importance of considering the impacts of a project and a with-and-without comparison. Suppose an irrigation project proposes to increase cotton production in Arizona. If the United States Department of Agriculture limits the cotton production in the U. S. by a system of quotas then expanded cotton production in Arizona might be offset by a reduction in the cotto n production quota for Mississippi. Thus the impact of the project on cotton production in the U. S. might be zero rather than being the amount of cotton produced by the project. * Cost Benefit Analysis Involves a Particular Study Area The impacts of a project are defined for a particular study area, be it a city, region, state, nation or the world. In the above example concerning cotton the impact of the project might be zero for the nation but still be a positive amount for Arizona. * The nature of the study area is usually specified by the organization sponsoring the analysis. Many effects of a project may net out over one study area but not over a smaller one. The specification of the study area may be arbitrary but it may significantly affect the conclusions of the analysis. * Double Counting of Benefits or Costs Must be Avoided Sometimes an impact of a project can be measured in two or more ways. For example, when an improved highway reduces travel time and the risk of injury the value of property in areas served by the highway will be enhanced. The increase in property values due to the project is a very good way, at least in principle, to measure the benefits of a project. But if the increased property values are included then it is unnecessary to include the value of the time and lives saved by the improvement in the highway. The property value went up because of the benefits of the time saving and the reduced risks. To include both the increase in property values and the time saving and risk reduction would involve double counting. * Decision Criteria for Projects * If the discounted present value of the benefits exceeds the discounted present value of the costs then the project is worthwhile. This is equivalent to the condition that the net benefit must be positive. Another equivalent condition is that the ratio of the present value of the benefits to the present value of the costs must be greater than one. * If there are more than one mutually exclusive project that have positive net present value then there has to be further analysis. From the set of mutually exclusive projects the one that should be selected is the one with the highest net present value. * If the funds required for carrying out all of the projects with positive net present value are less than the funds available this means the discount rate used in computing the present values is too low and does not reflect the true cost of capital. The present values must be recomputed using a higher discount rate. It may take some trial and error to find a discount rate such that the funds required for the projects with a positive net present value is no more than the funds available. Sometimes as an alternative to this procedure people try to select the best projects on the basis of some measure of goodness such as the internal rate of return or the benefit/cost ratio. This is not valid for several reasons. * The magnitude of the ratio of benefits to costs is to a degree arbitrary because some costs such as operating costs may be deducted from benefits and thus not be included in the cost figure. This is called netting out of operating costs. This netting out may be done for some projects and not for others. This manipulation of the benefits and costs will not affect the net benefits but it may change the benefit/cost ratio. However it will not raise the benefit cost ratio which is less than one to above one. For more on this topic see Benefit/ cost Ratio Magnitude. * An Example * To illustrate how CBA might be applied to a project, let us consider a highway improvement such as the extension of Highway 101 into San Jose. The local four-lane highway which carried the freeway and commuter traffic into San Jose did not have a median divider and its inordinate number of fatal head-on collisions led to the name Blood Alley. The improvement of the highway would lead to more capacity which produces time saving and lowers the risk. But inevitably there will be more traffic than was carried by the old highway. * The following is a highly abbreviated analysis using hypothetical data. TRIP DATA| No Extension, Blood Alley Only| 101 Extension and Blood Alley| Rush Hours|   |   | Passenger Trips ( per hour)| 3,000| 4,000| Trip Time (minutes)| 50| 30| Value of Time ($/minute)| $0. 10| $0. 10| Nonrush Hours|   |   | Passenger Trips (per hour)| 500| 555. 55| Trip Time (minutes)| 35| 25| Value of Time ($/minute)| $0. 08| $0. 08| Traffic Fatalities per year)| 12| 6| * The data indicates that for rush-hour trips the time cost of a trip is $5 without the project and $3 with it. It is assumed that the operating cost for a vehicle is unaffected by the project and is $4. * The project lowers the cost of a trip and the public responds by increasing the number of trips taken. There is an increase in consumer surplus both for the trips which would have been taken without the project and for the trips which are stimulated by the project. * For trips which would have been taken anyway the benefit of the project equals the value of the time saved times the number of trips. For the rush-hour trip the project saves $2 and for the nonrush-hour trip it saves $0. 80. For the trips generated by the project the benefit is equal to one half of the value of the time saved times the increase in the number of trips. * The benefits per hour are: TYPE| Trips Which Would Be Taken Anyway| Trips Generated By the Project| Total| Rush Hour| 6,000. 00| 1,000. 00| 7,000. 00| Nonrush Hour| 400. 00| 22. 22| 422. 22| * To convert the benefits to an annual basis one multiplies the hourly benefits of each type of trip times the number of hours per year for that type of trip. There are 260 week days per year and at six rush hours per weekday there are 1560 rush hours per year. This leaves 7200 nonrush hours per year. With these figures the annual benefits are: TYPE| Trips Which Would Be Taken Anyway| Trips Generated By the Project| Total| Rush Hour| $9,360,000| $1,560,000| $10,020,000| Nonrush Hour| $2,880,000| $160,000| $3,040,000| Total| $12,240,000| $1,720,000| $13,960,000| * The value of the reduced fatalities may be computed in terms of the equivalent economic value people place upon their lives when making choices concerning risk and money. If the labor market has wages for occupations of different risks such that people accept an increase in the risk of death of 1/1,000 per year in return for an increase in income of $400 per year then a project that reduces the risk of death in a year by 1/1000 gives a benefit to each person affected by it of $400 per year. The implicit valuation of a life in this case is $400,000. Thus benefit of the reduced risk project is the expected number of lives saved times the implicit value of a life. For the highway project this is 6x$400,000= $2,400,000 annually. * The annual benefits of the project are thus: TYPE OF BENEFIT| VALUE OF BENEFITS PER YEAR| Time Saving| $13,960,000| Reduced Risk| $2,400,000| * Let us assume that this level of benefits continues at a constant rate over a thirty-year lifetime of the project. * The cost of the highway consists of the costs for its right-of-way, its construction and its maintenance. The cost of the right-of-way is the cost of the land and any structures upon it which must be purchased before the construction of the highway can begin. For purposes of this example the cost of right-of-way is taken to be $100 million and it must be paid before any construction can begin. At least part of the right-of- way cost for a highway can be recovered at the end of the lifetime of the highway if it is not rebuilt. For the example it is assumed that all of the right-of-way cost is recoverable at the end of the thirty-year lifetime of the project. The construction cost is $200 million spread evenly over a four-year period. Maintenance cost is $1 million per year once the highway is completed. * The schedule of benefits and costs for the project are as follows: TIME (year)| BENEFITS ($millions)| RIGHT-OF -WAY ($millions)| CONSTRUCTION COSTS $millions)| MAINTENANCE ($millions)| 0| 0| 100| 0| 0| 1-4| 0| 0| 50| 0| 5-29| 16. 36| 0| 0| 1| 30| 16. 36| -100| 0| 1| * The benefits and costs are in constant value dollars; i. e. , there was no price increase included in the analysis. Therefore the discount rate used must be the real interest rate. If the interest rate on long term bonds is 8 percent and the rate of inflation is 6 percent then the real rate of interest is 2 p ercent. Present value of the streams of benefits and costs discounted at a 2 percent back to time zero are as follows:   | PRESENT VALUE $ millions)| Benefits| 304. 11| Costs|   | Right-of-Way| 44. 79| Construction| 190. 39| Maintenance| 18. 59| Total Costs| 253. 77| |   | | Net Benefits| 50. 35| | *independent rounding| * The positive net present value of $50. 35 million and benefit/cost ratio of 1. 2 indicate that the project is worthwhile if the cost of capital is 2 percent. When a discount rate of 3 percent is the benefit/cost ratio is slightly under 1. 0. This means that the internal rate of return is just under 3 percent. When the cost of capital is 3 percent the project is not worthwhile. It should be noted that the market value of the right-of-way understates the opportunity cost of having the land devoted to the highway. The land has a value of $100 million because of its income after property taxes. The economy is paying more for its alternate use but some of the pay ment is diverted for taxes. The discounted presented value of the payments for the alternate use might be more like $150 million instead of $100 million. Another way of making this point is that one of the costs of the highway is that the local governments lose the property tax on the land used. * Summary By reducing the positive and negative impacts of a project to their equivalent money value Cost-Benefit Analysis determines whether on balance the project is worthwhile. The equivalent money value are based upon information derived from consumer and producer market choices; i. e. , the demand and supply schedules for the goods and services affected by the project. Care must be taken to properly allow for such things as inflation. When all this has been considered a worthwhile project is one for which the discounted value of the benefits exceeds the discounted value of the costs; i. . , the net benefits are positive. This is equivalent to the benefit/cost ratio being greater than on e and the internal rate of return being greater than the cost of capital. * History of Cost-Benefit Analysis * CBA has its origins in the water development projects of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps of Engineers had its origins in the French engineers hired by George Washington in the American Revolution. For years the only school of engineering in the United States was the Military Academy at West Point, New York. In 1879, Congress created the Mississippi River Commission to prevent destructive floods. The Commission included civilians but the president had to be an Army engineer and the Corps of Engineers always had veto power over any decision by the Commission. * In 1936 Congress passed the Flood Control Act which contained the wording, the Federal Government should improve or participate in the improvement of navigable waters or their tributaries, including watersheds thereof, for flood-control purposes if the benefits to whomsoever they may accrue are in excess of the estimated costs. The phrase if the benefits to whomsoever they may accrue are in excess of the estimated costs established cost-benefit analysis. Initially the Corps of Engineers developed ad hoc methods for estimating benefits and costs. It wasnt until the 1950s that academic economists discovered that the Corps had developed a system for the economic analysis of public investments. Economists have influenced and improved the Corps methods since then and cost-benefit analysis has been adapted to most areas of public decision-making.